Sample Paper: MANS 571 - Individual moods and emotions in the workplace

Individual moods and emotions in the workplace

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MAN571 Organizational behavior

Date

Introduction

Emotions and moods play a big role on how employees communicate with other in the workplace. Emotions in the workplace are essential indications of a positive or negative job environment. Positive emotions can increase the worker motivation and performance, while negative emotions can cause stress and high turnover. This in turn will affect the whole organization either directly or indirectly. Positive moods enable employees to enhance their productivity at the workplace. However, negative emotions such as anger, hostility and stress can impact negatively on the productivity of the employees. Both types of emotions are contagious in the work place, which makes it even more important for managers to have an ability to read employee emotions. 

Emotional contagion is a way that the emotions of one employee are transferred to another employee via nonverbal channels. Managers need to harness positive emotions or eliminate negative emotions at work in order to maintain a healthy work environment.  How positive and negative emotions can influence employees and their productivity at work.

According to Brief &Weiss (2002), emotions are usually intense and occur due to specific events and can affect the way we think. Moods on the other hand are less intense and are not enhanced by any specific stimulus.

The purpose of this reflective thinking assignment is to examine the following:

·         Individual moods and emotions in the workplace and how they affect the employees

·         Describe different personality tests

·         Emotional intelligence

Individual moods and emotions in the workplace

It is normal for employees to express emotions. However, it should be noted that negative emotions can be infectious and in turn spread from one employee to another. This can significantly affect interpersonal communication in the organization.

Emotions can sometimes cause a person to be irrational. For instance, an employee who suffers severe head injuries which may affect his/her brain causing him/her to be emotionless would result in such an employee not being able to experience any reason, hence becoming irrational. In order to determine how an individual expresses emotions at work, it will be important to put into consideration how such an individual experiences work from a personal point of view so as to understand meaning to those emotions (Weiss & Rupp, 2011)

The following are the sources of mood and emotions in the workplace;

·         Stress

Stress is body's way of responding to any kind of demand or tension .It can be caused by both good and bad experiences in life .Stress is the major cause of negative feelings at work, for instance, too much work overloads , difficult colleagues or customers and demanding bosses/supervisors can lead to negative feelings (Kanner, Schaefer & Lazarus, 1984)

·         Personality

A person’s temperament determines their moods and emotions. For instance, extroverts typically express their emotions for all to see and express, very outgoing and frequently show positive feelings of excitement, happiness towards people around them .

·         Social activities

Interpersonal interactions on social occasions and events contribute to emotions and moods. Those interactions which are positive translate to positive feelings and vice-versa

·         Weather

Research has shown that weather thought to have effects on mood. Individuals have been known to express negative feelings on dark, stormy/rainy days and positive feelings and emotions on bright, hot and sunny days, people would love to engage in outdoor games and activities in summer vacations.

·         Gender

Women have been culturally known to frequently and easily express their moods and emotions. This is why managers are very careful when dealing with female employees since they are very sensitive and emotional on such issues such as family, children’s rights and they are very self-conscious . Males are opposite to the females in the expression of their emotions even under very stressful situations men can hold their emotions well because of their self-control attitude.

·         Exercise

Research has shown that physical exercise can be used to improve mood for individual’s suffering from depression. Some organizations offer free gym memberships to their employees and encourages them to regularly exercise to improve their mood and enhance positive feelings towards their employers and coworkers.

I personally experience the urge for workout, when I start my day by going to the Gym, I have a fantastic day with full involvement in all that tasks and vice versa. (Slaski, 2002)

·         Sleep

Quality of sleep affects mood. Individuals who sleep for less than 8 hours per night are likely to experience negative feelings ,as in my case during previous couple of months I could not have quality sleep because of taking care of my 81 years old mom who had stroke last year . I had to make big changes in my daily routines and got extra help to get me back to my sleep patterns min of 8 hrs uninterrupted sleep which makes my day very productive otherwise I become irritable.

·         Age

Evidence shows that older individuals experience more positive feelings than young people. This is why young people suffer from depression, eating disorders and show suicidal tendencies as a result of negative and stressful feelings. As we grow older our personalities start getting settled  in terms with the environment we are living in which makes us less stressful and out of mood swings.

·         Physical environment

Physical settings can cause mood and emotions at work. A beautiful view of outdoor scenery from the office window can enhance the employee’s mood and sometimes when lighting at work is extreme either too bright or too dark can cause negative moods among employees (Kuller, Ballal et al, 2006)

Effects of mood and emotions in the workplace

The following are the effects/impacts of moods and emotions in the workplace;

        i.            Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction is a major motivating factor for employees to be more productive at work. It is also the major cause of high employee turnover rate. When employees are more satisfied at their jobs, they tend to experience more positive moods and emotions.

      ii.            Employee performance

Mood can affect personal judgment which in turn will influence performance. According to Ashkenazy &Humphrey (2011), managers who experience positive moods are likely to take greater risks and be more optimistic. This optimism by managers can inspire the employees to perform better too.

    iii.            Creativity  and innovativeness

Both positive and negative moods can contribute to innovation. However, only positive mood can influence creativity at work. According to Amiable, Barsade et al (2005), positive mood facilitates cognitive and divergent thinking which enhance tasks that require creativity.

    iv.            Interpersonal relationships

Personal moods among workers can influence their moods toward others. This in turn will affect to a significant extend interpersonal relationships among workers. A worker who shows positive moods attracts other to him/her which will lead to a positive interpersonal relationship and vice-versa

Different personality tests

There are many personality tests put forth by various psychologists. The main goals of psychology have been to establish a model that can conveniently describe human personality. While conducting various personality tests Personality test is basically a questionnaire designed to reveal various aspects of a person’s character.(Brief, 2002) One of the more prominent models for the description of personality in contemporary psychology is known as the five-factor model of personality (Digman, 1990) the big five personality tests model includes;

·         The Ten Item  Personality Inventory

·         Revised Neo personality Inventory

·         The Five Factor Personality Inventory

·         The Five Factor Model Rating Form

·         The Big Five Inventory

The five factor personality traits are in the following table

There has been much research conducted on how people describe others and five major dimensions of human personality have been found which is described as the OCEAN model of personality which have been described by the above table

1- Openness

2- Conscientiousness

3-Extraversion

4-Agreeableness

5-Neuroticism

3 - Personality Test Performed

I performed 3 personality tests on myself to explore my personality traits and I agreed to some of the results and some of the personality traits I found very helpful to incorporate into a leadership role to manage successfully an organization.

1-Big five personality test:

I did this big five personality test for myself and my son who is 23 , was another person in this comparison having the same ethnic and social back ground with the difference of the fact that I was born in Pakistan and he was born in USA and studied in USA.

When I performed the big five project personality test and results are following:

I'maO80-C96-E53-A90-N37BigFive!!OCEAN

	Your Results Their Results
Closed-Minded		Open to New Experiences
Disorganized		Conscientious
Introverted		Extraverted
Disagreeable		Agreeable
Calm / Relaxed		Nervous / High-Strung

This score is close to my personality but I would say the test results don’t describe my personality fully as there are some personality traits which changes with the circumstances, for instance when I am dealing with my team members I have to be aggressive to get the job done on timely basis. As per the results of this test I have a relaxed personality trait along with the element of openness which is sometimes turns out to be opposite.

2-Type A / B personality Test

I also conducted Type A /B personality test and my score was 6 out of ten putting me in Type A and B personality.

Type A individual as ambitious, rigidly organized, highly status conscious, can be sensitive, care for other people, are truthful, impatient, always try to help others, , take on more than they can handle, want other people to get to the point, proactive, and obsessed with time management. People with Type A personalities are often high-achieving "workaholics" who multi-task, push themselves with deadlines, 

 Type B individuals are a contrast to those with Type A personalities. People with Type B personality by definition generally live at a lower stress level and typically work steadily, enjoying achievement but not becoming stressed when they are not achieved. When faced with competition, they do not mind losing and either enjoy the game or back down. They may be creative and enjoy exploring ideas and concepts. They are often reflective, thinking about the outer and inner worlds. Furthermore, Type B personalities may have a poor sense of time schedule and can be predominately right brained thinkers.

If I look into my personal and professional personality traits I have most of the qualities of Type A and few from Type B ,like I am very ambitious, organized, , sensitive, care for other people, truthful, take on more than what I can handle, proactive, and obsessed with time management, "workaholics" multi-task, push  with deadlines, and some of the qualities of type B which are I am very creative love exploring new ideas and concepts ,brain thinker and always stay at lower level of stress .

3-   Stress-O-Meter

I also conducted the stress-o-Meter test to measure the precise amount of stress in the working environment. There were 16 questions regarding the attitudes at work among the employers and employees.

Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is also known as Emotional Quotient. According to Coleman &Andrew (2008), emotional intelligence is “the capacity of individuals to recognize their own, and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different feelings and label them appropriately, to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior, and to manage and/or adjust emotions to adapt environments or achieve one's goals” Emotional intelligence (EQ) is more important than one’s intelligence (IQ) in attaining success in their lives and careers. (Abraham, 1999)

Understanding the Five Categories of Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

1.      Self-awareness.

 The ability to recognize an emotion as it “happens” is the key to your EQ. Developing self-awareness requires tuning in to your true feelings. If you evaluate your emotions, you can manage them. The major elements of self-awareness are:

• Emotional awareness. Your ability to recognize your own emotions and their effects.
• Self-confidence. Sureness about your self-worth and capabilities.

2.      Self-regulation

 (John, 1999)

You often have little control over when you experience emotions. You can, however, have some say in how long an emotion will last by using a number of techniques to alleviate negative emotions such as anger, anxiety or depression. A few of these techniques include recasting a situation in a more positive light, taking a long walk and meditation or prayer. Self-regulation involves

• Self-control. Managing disruptive impulses.
• Trustworthiness. Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity.
• Conscientiousness. Taking responsibility for your own performance.
• Adaptability. Handling change with flexibility.
• Innovation. Being open to new ideas

3.      Motivation. 

To motivate yourself for any achievement requires clear goals and a positive attitude. Although you may have a predisposition to either a positive or a negative attitude, you can with effort and practice learn to think more positively. If you catch negative thoughts as they occur, you can reframe them in more positive terms — which will help you achieve your goals. Motivation is made up of:

• Achievement drive. You’re constant striving to improve or to meet a standard of excellence.
• Commitment. Aligning with the goals of the group or organization.
• Initiative. Readying yourself to act on opportunities.
• Optimism. Pursuing goals persistently despite obstacles and setbacks.

4.      Empathy. 

The ability to recognize how people feel is important to success in your life and career. The more skillful you are at discerning the feelings behind others’ signals the better you can control the signals you send them. (Mayer, 1997) An empathetic person excels at:

• Service orientation. Anticipating, recognizing and meeting clients’ needs.
• Developing others. Sensing what others need to progress and bolstering their abilities.
• Leveraging diversity. Cultivating opportunities through diverse people.
• Political awareness. Reading a group’s emotional currents and power relationships.
• Understanding others. Discerning the feelings behind the needs and wants of others

.

5.      Social skills. 

The development of good interpersonal skills is tantamount to success in your life and career. In today’s always-connected world, everyone has immediate access to technical knowledge. Thus, “people skills” are even more important now because you must possess a high EQ to better understand, empathize and negotiate with others in a global economy. Among the most useful skills are (Barling, 2000) :

• Influence. Wielding effective persuasion tactics.
• Communication. Sending clear messages.
• Leadership. Inspiring and guiding groups and people.
• Change catalyst. Initiating or managing change.
• Conflict management. Understanding, negotiating and resolving disagreements.
• Building bonds. Nurturing instrumental relationships.
• Collaboration and cooperation. Working with others toward shared goals.
• Team capabilities. Creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals.

Psychologists have come up with various models to explain and demonstrate how emotional intelligence works. (Pipkins, 1998) These models are;

·         Traits model

This model uses the perception of individuals regarding their own emotional abilities. Individuals are then subjected to a traits emotional intelligence questionnaire to test their emotional intelligence

·         Ability model

This model was developed by Salovey and Mayer. The model is based on an individual’s ability to perceive emotions. Use emotions, understand and manage emotions. The model uses emotion-based problem solving tests to determine emotional score of an individual

·         Mixed model

This model was pioneered by Daniel Coleman. The model is based on self-awareness, social skill, empathy and motivation. Individuals are subjected to Emotional Intelligence Appraisal tests. (Dasborough, 2002)

            All of these models can be applied flexibly to various situations and aren’t only applicable in one type of situation. Leaders must be aware of all of these models of assessing emotional intelligence of the employees and other individuals.

Conclusion

As leaders, managers and individuals our success and the success of the today’s profession depend on our ability to read other people’s signals and react appropriately to them. The leaders must keep their employees happy mentally with the healthy environment around and positive emotions resulting from a fantastic work environment. The functions of positive emotions are that employees are extremely productive, motivated and happy. This would result in tremendous progress and profits for the organization.

Solved: Ethical Culture, GM Case Study - General Motors Case study

Ethical Culture, GM Case Study

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INTRODUCTION

About 800, 000 of general motor's cars had engine shut down due to failure of the ignition switches. It often occurred when the vehicles were in motion hence most accidents were caused resulting into several deaths. For years, general motors never discovered that the problem was with their ignition switches. A lot of funds were compensated for the deaths caused. Despite GM discovering the cause for the accidents caused were due to faulty ignition switches, the information was disclosed for about fifteen years. Research reveals that the cause for the information disclosure was dur to ethical lapse in the corporate company. It took more than a decade for the government to discover that more than 2.6 million cars got damaged and caused accident due to faulty ignition switches. There was liaise with the federal prosecutors to announce a fine of 900 million US dollars to end the criminal investigations. Besides, they were to adhere to some terms and conditions for the coming three years. There are main events that occurred during the recall

Key instances of the recall

 In February 2002, Engineer Ray DeGiorgio who specialized in ignition switches designed an ignition switch. According to the quality assurance team the standards of the gadget did not meet GM's specifications. However, the switch was later used in Saturn Ion and later in Chevrolet Cobalt despite it being identified that it was below the standards. The switch was then used in Saturn Sky, Chevrolet HHR, PontiacG5 and Solstice. In 20005 a Chevrolet Cobalt owner, Amber Rose, got involved in an accident and died. Investigations showed that the frontal crash resulted from faulty switches which changed positions from the run to accessory hence resulting into cut off power to the airbags, steering and brakes. It led to a fatal accident. To resolve the situation, Engineer Ray signed a redesign of the ignition switch but in his redesign the part number is not changed. It led to uncertainties as to whether the changes were made or not. The alleged redesigned switch was used in cars from 2007. In 2013 the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) declined to open investigations as to why Cobalt and Ion did not have proper air bags regarding several accidents that occurred during that period. NHTSA claimed that GM concealed important information hence preventing them from going further with the investigations.

A new CEO, Mary Barra, discovered in 2013 that there was an issue with the ignition switches in GM. Around February 2013, GM recalled 1.6 million cars to repair spoiled ignition switches, the number later grew to 2.6 million cars. General Motors received a fine of $35 million by US government for failing to reveal the cause of the problem early enough. GM paid then fine and admitted to give a report on the government's demands and its safety operations in good time. In June 2014, Barra released a report which were investigations conducted by prosecutor Anton. Barra stated that regarding the investigations, 15 employees were retrenched and five have undergone penalties due to their actions. The CEO agreed to compensate fund to victims who reported companies as from the first day of August. It was discovered that defective switches resulted into 275 injuries and 124 deaths and each victim's family will be compensated at least 1 million dollars. The company had 625 million dollars for the compensation process. 

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General Motor's actions towards the issue

General Motor's issue on defective ignition switches not only costed the company a lot of money but also tarnished its name to the public. Since the issues were related to ethics and culture, the company decided to review and publish its ethical codes. All employees were required to read, sign and follow the ethical codes of conduct failure to which punishments will be applied. By GM resorting to admit they had faulty switches, they chose on the engineering code of ethics other than profitability. Regarding GM's failure in culture and leadership, the code of ethics had to cover the entire stakeholders involed in the company's operations from the junior most to senior most positions. Their code of ethics addressed issues on integrity and the company's terms and values.

Among the code's listed was the significance of speaking up in case there are corruption or misconduct issues. The company majors on safety, identification and resolving the problems encountered. Among the issues listed are accountability, conflict resolution, management of resources and reporting of misbehavior such as theft, violence and fraud. The speak up policy was meant to encourage the employees to report any misconduct they observe without fear of being harmed or retrenched. The company also resorted to improving vehicle safety. The employees had to understand the codes of ethics including the repercussions of committing crimes. They resorted that their first priority as a company will be safety.

Recommendations of possible solutions to GM's problem

Studies show that ethics is controlled by culture. A large number of employees at GM decided to remain silent about the ignition switches which resulted to several deaths, this clearly shows that a company can have well laid out codes of ethics but no satisfiable integrity. It is not only enough to pass good laws regarding some policies in the company, but also important for employees to use their common sense and have a sense of humanity in them. Employees need to have good morals and the desire to do the right thing and be accountable. The leaders should be ready for any crisis and also be able to lead under the company under turbulence for the sake of positive transformation of the employees. 

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Corruption is secretive, culture change is gradual. Problem acceptance is an important way of solving ethical issues in an organization. Deploying other stakeholders to investigate the company's problems also helps identify the issues. Valukas' report regarding the switch issues in GM shows a problem of silence and concealment. After it was discovered that the switches designed by engineer ray has a lower torque spec. the engineer was under pressure to deliver a less costly ignition switch and culture encouraged this behavior. In conducting investigations, witnesses from top most executive positions also need to be spotted.

            General Motors learned a lot of lessons from the ordeal, they realized that a lot of effort and resources should be geared towards ensuring that the environment is ethically heathy and that employees have the right morals. Leaders living on assumptions that their employees will always do the right thing can result into discovery of misconducts later after a damage is made. Organizational leaders need to know their organizational culture, this can only be identified through proper communication. When communication is functional from the junior employees and up through the senior, discovering a problem would be easier. There could be information that a lot of employees are aware of but the CEO has no idea about them. Such matters can only be addressed through constant communication through meetings and emails.

Employees also need to communicate any misconduct happening in the organization. A culture of integrity and honesty need to be nurtured in organizations. The only way this can be done is when the leaders do thorough inspection in the company and interact with employees at personal level. By creating a conducive environment and being approachable, knowing what is happening in the business will be made easier. After a mistake is identified, leaders should learn and adapt to the current situations of the organization. They ought to quickly notice possibilities and solutions to the crisis. They need to only expect trustworthiness if it is more inclined to viewing the positive side of the crisis.

Conclusion

It took about fifteen years for managers to release bad news about the faulty ignition switches in general motors. For the news to be out, the managers had to go back to history and understand how it all began. Emphasis of employees doing the right thing and being honest helps eliminate the chances of nurturing bad culture into the business environment. Organizations should concentrate more on their consumers safety other than profitability. They need not to wait until several cases are reported on the consequences of their actions for them to release their reports. Managers should be well prepared for tragedy and crisis and be able to survive through such atmosphere.

Solved: Magic Timber Case Study

Magic Timber Case Study

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An Analysis of investment plan at Magical Timber and Steel.

Introduction

An organization must be reliable and of good performance. The performance of wood companies require labor, resources and the market to sell off their products. With the constant rise in technology, companies have adopted new ways of processing. This has been achieved through the introduction of new machinery. A company with better technology will obviously produce quality goods. The cost of using outdated machinery in the company has risen since the outdated machines have proved to be slow, constantly breakdown making them very unreliable. Magical company is an example of such a company that is in the verge of adopting new machinery to their processing line with an aim of increasing production with a reduced cost (Gauri,2004).

Project management career

Project management is considered to be a comprehensive program that has an objective of improving leaders' performance in the industry and also the organization's performance. The program has offered a hand in raising productivity to both the corporate as well as the scientific world. Any leader requires the right persons in his or her management to realize the set goals as well as the objectives of the organization as a whole. Different people have the capability of occupying different managerial positions that are available, in trying to realize the goals and the purposes that are set by a particular firm concerning the skills that they have as well as their reliability. The roles are inclusive of the project manager, team members, sponsor, team leader, as well as the steering committee (Cunningham, 2015). The team members perform almost all the work in the company, they are the ones in the ground, and they are as well the engine of the firm. The team members should have the technical skill and people who can perform many duties of different kinds. They should show their responsibilities as a team and in meeting the goal of an organization they should collaborate. One can get outstanding team members who can deliver objectives.

Three potential project management positions that I would personally consider likely employment when I complete the program management program include;

Project manager to chief operating officer

A project manager who has close to 10 years of experience implementing industry projects like in insurance or banking hall, in an institution is very suited to be a chief operating officer. The project manager in his or her work, would have performed with the C-level, corporate departments, as well as all staff level in an organization (Day, 2018). The project manager can see the operational outs and ins as compared to anyone else in any specific department. If one aspires to be a chief operating officer, it will good to get a business degree or MBA more so if one has a base of a technical area degree such as accounting or engineering.

Project Manager to Entrepreneur

A lot of my friends who are project managers and have close to 10 years of experience as project managers while hitting 40s, always tend to start their own business and leave the job. I do believe it is natural for ten years or so within the corporate world as a project manager is a long time. This is because most of the project managers work triply or double hard in trying to meet the set deadlines and the goals of an organization. There is a wide opening in entrepreneurship. I have witnessed many project managers put their project managerial skills into good use by becoming restaurant owners (Novikov, 2017). Some start consultancy firms by themselves, giving out system execution projects. Some even start writing software and selling by use of the industry knowledge as well as secondary solutions.

Business-As-Usual Role to Project Manager

Taking an example of one of my friends who were from the operational department in the global bank. What he was doing over three years was confirmation of trade daily wit counterparties for a trade laced with a relationship manager by any client. This is an operational kind of job, meaning that his responsibilities and roles were not changing much day-to-day. Among his contributions to the organization as being a tester in system enhancement rollout. He was running the test scripts and delivered feedback on the software quality as well as system bugs' documentation (Tang, 2019). The limited period my friend worked got him interested in broader project jobs, and he moved on to join a global management consultancy organization as a business analyst. After four years he made the transition to project manager from business analyst a role that he played for 3years. My friend today is running projects successfully for another global bank. What am trying to put across is that if one is interested in becoming a project manager, from a business analyst after starting as a BAU person, he or she can indulge in project job in a small role. After that, leveraging on the experience of the project, and the knowhow on the industry from the BAU role, there exists a strong proposition in joining a project team or company as a business analyst. It is smoother to transition from a business analyst to be a project manager.

The financial service sectors are where many of the project management jobs fall mostly- particularly in the banks. Private Banks, in particular, are dignified in tapping on all the individuals who are rich in cash.

Project Management Certification

After the completion of the project management program, I would wish to make a point in the certification of project management. One could ask if the project management professional (PMP) certification is a credential that should be considered useful for one to have. In my view, I would state that from the project delivery point of view, I would not find it essential or much useful. I know many managers of projects who are performing so well, but they do not have the project management professional certification (Day, 2018). Having that in mind, the project management professional certification is considered a prerequisite in many jobs of project management, mainly in the project management parts in banks. It is like the MBA or the CFA designation where it does not hurt having one, but it doesn't matter in acquiring a project management role.

CHAPTER 5 OUTLINE

What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?   Definition:        Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret                         their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their                         environment. Why is this important to the study of OB? Because people’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.
A.    Factors Influencing Perception
1.     Factors that shape and can distort perception (Exhibit 5-1): ·         Perceiver ·         Target ·         Situation 2.     When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she sees, that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. 3.     The more relevant personal characteristics affecting perception of the perceiver are attitudes, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations. 4.     Characteristics of the target can also affect what is being perceived.  This would include attractiveness, gregariousness, and our tendency to group similar things together.  For example, members of a group with clearly distinguishable features or color are often perceived as alike in other, unrelated characteristics as well. 5.     The context in which we see objects or events also influences our attention.  This could include time, heat, light, or other situational factors.

 

Person Perception: Making Judgments about Others

B.    Attribution Theory  (Exhibit 5-2)
1.   Our perceptions of people differ from our perceptions of inanimate objects. ·         We make inferences about the actions of people that we do not make about inanimate objects. ·         Nonliving objects are subject to the laws of nature. ·         People have beliefs, motives, or intentions. 2.   Our perception and judgment of a person’s actions are influenced by these assumptions.
3.   Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. That determination depends largely on three factors: ·         Distinctiveness ·         Consensus ·         Consistency 4.  Clarification of the differences between internal and external causation: ·         Internally caused behaviors are those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual. ·         Externally caused behavior is seen as resulting from outside causes; that is, the person is seen as having been forced into the behavior by the situation. 5.   Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations. What we want to know is whether the observed behavior is unusual. ·         If it is, the observer is likely to give the behavior an external attribution. ·         If this action is not unusual, it will probably be judged as internal. 6.   Consensus occurs if everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way.  If consensus is high, you would be expected to give an external attribution to the employee’s tardiness, whereas if other employees who took the same route made it to work on time, your conclusion as to causation would be internal. 7.   Consistency in a person’s actions. Does the person respond the same way over time? The more consistent the behavior, the more the observer is inclined to attribute it to internal causes. 8.   Fundamental Attribution Error ·         There is substantial evidence that we have a tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors. ·         There is also a tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors such as ability or effort while putting the blame for failure on external factors such as luck. This is called the “self-serving bias” and suggests that feedback provided to employees will be distorted by recipients. 9.   Are these errors or biases that distort attribution universal across different cultures? While there is no definitive answer there is some preliminary evidence that indicates cultural differences: ·         Korean managers found that, contrary to the self-serving bias, they tended to accept responsibility for group failure. ·         Attribution theory was developed largely based on experiments with Americans and Western Europeans. ·         The Korean study suggests caution in making attribution theory predictions in non-Western societies, especially in countries with strong collectivist traditions.
C.    Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
1.   We use a number of shortcuts when we judge others. An understanding of these shortcuts can be helpful toward recognizing when they can result in significant distortions. 2.   Selective Perception ·         Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out will increase the probability that it will be perceived. ·         Since we can’t observe everything going on about us, we engage in selective perception. ·         A classic example: a.   Dearborn and Simon performed a perceptual study in which 23 business executives read a comprehensive case describing the organization and activities of a steel company. b.   The results along with other results of the study, led the researchers to conclude that the participants perceived aspects of a situation that were specifically related to the activities and goals of the unit to which they were attached. c.   A group’s perception of organizational activities is selectively altered to align with the vested interests they represent. 3.   Halo Effect ·         The halo effect occurs when we draw a general impression on the basis of a single characteristic: a.   This phenomenon frequently occurs when students appraise their classroom instructor.  b.   Propensity for halo effect to operate is not random.  ·         The reality of the halo effect was confirmed in a classic study. a.   Subjects were given a list of traits such as intelligent, skillful, practical, industrious, determined, and warm, and were asked to evaluate the person to whom those traits applied.  When the word “warm” was substituted with “cold” the subjects changed their evaluation of the person. b.   The experiment showed that subjects were allowing a single trait to influence their overall impression of the person being judged. c.   Research suggests that it is likely to be most extreme when the traits to be perceived are ambiguous in behavioral terms, when the traits have moral overtones, and when the perceiver is judging traits with which he or she has had limited experience.